Kletus Likuwa
(University of Namibia)

Contract Labour System and Farm Labourers Experiences
in Pre-Independent Namibia: Historical Reflections,

Perspectives and Lessons

BAB Working Paper No. 2: 2014
ISSN 1422-8769 © The author © Basler Afrika Bibliographien

Presented at Basler Afrika Bibliographien

17 September 2014

Basler Afrika Bibliographien Klosterberg 23 CH 4051 Basel Switzerland
Tel + 41 61 228 93 33 Fax + 41 61 228 93 30 Email bab@baslerafrika.ch

BAB Working Papers
(ISSN No. 1422-8769)

The BAB Working Papers are being published since 1995. Recent numbers include:

Working Paper No. 3: 2009 Robin Tyson
Tools of the Regime. Namibian Radio History and Selective
Sound Archiving 19792009

Working Paper No. 1: 2010 Werner Hillebrecht
The Preservation of the Audio Heritage of Namibia.
Challenges and Opportunities

Working Paper No. 2: 2010 Oliver C. Ruppel
Womens Rights and Customary Law in Namibia:
A Conflict between Human and Cultural Rights?

Working Paper No. 3: 2010 Jan-Bart Gewald
From Kaliloze to Karavina: The historical and current use and

context of Kaliloze witch guns in Western Zambiae

Working Paper No. 1: 2011 Oliver C. Ruppel
Wasser, Land und Politik im südlichen Afrika

Working Paper No. 1: 2012 Olaf Zenker
The Indicatorisation of South African Land Restitution

Working Paper No. 1: 2013 Henning Melber
Liberation Movements as Governments: Democratic Authori-

tarianism in Former Settler Colonies of Southern Africa

Working Paper No. 2: 2013 Silke Isaak-Finhold
Namibia und Südafrika:
Befreiungsbewegungen an der Macht

Working Paper No. 1: 2014 Lorena Rizzo
Faszination Landschaft Landschaftsphotographie
in Namibia

ORDER (CHF 5.00 each + p&p):

Basler Afrika Bibliographien Klosterberg 23 CH-4051 Basel Switzerland
www.baslerafrika.ch

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 1

Contract Labour System and Farm Labourers Experiences in
Pre-Independent Namibia: Historical Reflections, Perspectives and Lessons

Kletus Likuwa

Introduction

Contract labourers from Namibia came only from former Ovamboland and the Kavango area
and although there were farm labourers from other Namibian ethnic groups, they were not con-
tracted.1 Many of the farms where labourers got contracted were mainly owned by German set-
tlers and Afrikaners who engaged mainly in farming with livestock such as sheep, goats and cat-
tle. Labour migration from Kavango during the German occupation period was low and totalled
only 122 men from 1910 to 1913.2 This is in contrast to Ovamboland, which recorded 9295 la-
bourers in 1911, 6076 in 1912 and 12025 in 1913.3 The table below, while not a comprehensive
statistical compilation, shows the extent of the disparity in migration from the Kavango and
Ovamboland during the South Africa period for the years of the 1920s, the 1940s and 1950s.

1 I thank the Carl Schlettwein foundation of Basel, Switzerland, for the financial support for my PhD studies
at the University of the Western Cape. I am extremely grateful to Professor Uma Dhupelia Mesthrie, my aca-
demic supervisor at UWC, for her guidance and support. I also thank the Dean of the Research Office of UWC
for granting me a writing fellowship funding.

2 A. Eckl, Konfrontation und Kooperation am Kavango (Nord Namibia) von 1891 bis 1921 (PhD thesis, Uni-
versity of Cologne, 2004), p. 120.

3 See M.J. Oliviers Inboorlingheid en administrasie in die mandaat gebied van Suid Wes-Afrika (PhD thesis,
University of Stellenbosch, 1961), p. 253.

Figure 1: SWANLA recruitments compiled from The annual report of SWA Administrator of 1938-40 on labour
recruitments from Kavango (AKA 552, N1/15/6-2), The Union of South Africa report on labour recruitments
(JX0220, 1924, 1925 & 1926), Labour recruitments 1938-1940 (AKA 552, N1/15/ 6-2) and from SWAA
1/1/46, A521/26 (v.5).

Year Kavangoland Ovamboland

1924 346 3273

1925 243 3269

1926 355 4033

1941 639 4060

1942 351 3137

1943 539 6659

1959 1033 14960

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 2

This trend continued for the whole period of the contract system and by 1971 it was reported
that there were 43000 contract labourers in Namibia of which only 3000 were from the Kavan-
go and the rest were from Ovamboland.4 The statistics for labour migration indicates that the
response to labour migration in the Kavango was not the same as in Ovamboland and there was
never the same value attached to contract labour migration.5 However the table indicates that
recruitment by SWANLA (1943-1972) was better than its predecessor NLO (1925-1942). The
number of contract workers in Namibia supplied to the farming sector exceeded the number to
the mines for the first time in 1934 and remained so during most of the 1940s.6 This occurred
because after 1948, SWANLA adopted a compelling strategy to be able to meet the demands
for farm labour by making it compulsory for all new recruits to spend at least one contract as a
farm worker before they would be able to travel to the mines.7

This paper centrally uses the recorded oral interviews of former contract labourers from the
Kavango in northeast Namibia, supplemented with archival sources from the National Archives
of Namibia (NAN) and written sources to reflect on the experiences of farm labourers under the
contract labour system during the South African colonial period. The paper explores journeys to
and from the farms, the living and farm work experiences and farm workers perception of their
experiences under the contract labour system. The aim is to provide a historical basis to extract
lessons to understand the current challenges presented by farm labour practices in postcolonial
Namibia where the plights of farm workers remains a pertinent and persistent labour issue. The
paper points that the paradigm of exploitation, suppression and entrapment under the contract
labour system remain dominant in the narratives of former farm labourers. Furthermore, many
farm labourers viewed their mistreatment under the contract labour system as colonial exploi-
tation at its worst as the wages were too low. Although many of them extended their contracts
in the hope to accumulate more money to improve their social and economic conditions, this
remained an everlasting hope and a permanent failure.

Journey to the Recruiting Depot

The colonial administration aimed to maximise profit from black Namibians labour power
and therefore put control measures and infrastructures in place to ensure that contract labour-
ers from the Kavango were delivered to their work destinations in the police zone.8 In the
early South African colonial period, migration was under the escort of the visiting colonial of-

4 J. Kane-Berman, Contract labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, South African Institute of Race Rela-
tions, 1972), p. 5.

5 M.J. Olivier, Inboorlingbeleid, p. 253.
6 J. Silvester, Black Pastoralists, White Farmers: the dynamics of land dispossession and recruitment in south-

ern Namibia(PhD thesis, London, 1993), p. 335.
7 Ibid.
8 Police zone refers to the central and southern parts of Namibia where white owned commercial farms were

situated and were police control was strictly enforced.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 3

ficials and later through labour escorts and eventually through organized recruiting agencies.
The journey to the work destination was a tightly controlled process and an overt control over
labourers. All their personal and family details, for example, were recorded at Rundu and re-
produced and kept in the recruiting centre at Grootfontein. Apart from the D.P. disease control,
the labourers were also inspected for security purposes at the police border posts of Nurugas
and Tsintabis, which were entry points to the police zone from the Kavango. After 1936 when
the office of the Native Commissioner operated from Rundu, all new labour recruits began to
report at his office. The contract labourers slept at a labour compound that consisted of thatched
roof houses and was situated near the river side but in the late 1950s another compound was
constructed further away from the river with permanent brick structures. The compounding of
contract labourers at Rundu ensured that the administration had an easily available pool from
which to extract labourers who passed the medical testing process.

A contract labourer was first examined in Rundu and then in Grootfontein9 and this medical
procedure degraded and embarrassed contract labourers. While in Rundu, labourers were stripped
naked and taken to a hall surrounded by a short wall made of reeds near the SWANLA shop to be
medically examined. Afterwards they proceeded to the hospital to what they called the wahahe-
sera (dont breathe) machines to test if they had tuberculosis (TB).10 They called the x-ray ma-
chines the dont breathe machines because labourers were usually asked to breathe in and hold
their breath for several seconds while an x-ray was taken. The medical testing process therefore
displayed lack of respect for the humanity of the labourers. The tagging with a metal alphabetic tag
around the hand ensured that labourers were aware of their job categories before they left Rundu.
The B symbol indicated that labourers were fit for heavy farm work such as extensive milk-
ing, dam building, herding of large flocks of sheep or goats while the C symbol was given to
labourers who were fit for light farm work such as milking a few cows, herding small flocks of
sheep, goats and other light herd work.11 The provision of symbols to labourers at Rundu was
for classification purposes only and the labourers still were at a loss as to what employer they
would be assigned to and to which work destination they would be sent to.

Contract labourers were exposed to personal hardship and danger during the journey. For
example, in the earlier periods, they carried their load of goods on their shoulders and had to
provide for their own meals and were also hampered by Bushmen attacks and thirst.12 Transport
was introduced by NLO from Kavango to the south only in 1938 and Mr Gaerdes Kemp (lo-
cally known as Kemba) was appointed to transport contract labourers and to run the only NLO
shop at Rundu. The lorries that transported migrant labourers followed the road from Rundu via

9 See SWANLA Manager of Grootfontein to the Chief Native Commissioner in Windhoek Medical examina-
tions of recruits at Runtu (SWAA 2426, A521/10, 8 April 1953).

10 See interview with Bernhard Lipayi Linyando, Ndiyona, 27 July 2009.
11 The Native Commissioner to District surgeon of Runtu, Classification of recruits, SWANLA and WENELA

(NAR 1/1/55, 13/1/1, 28 March 1947).
12 See interview with Shikiri waNkayira, Ndongalinena, 8 August 2009.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 4

KarukuvisaTsintsabis to Grootfontein. This was a deep sandy road, which slowed down the
speed of the lorries and made the journey to the recruiting depot very long and tiring.13

A key image constructed by contract labourers about recruitment at the Grootfontein re-
cruiting depot is that of sale or purchase. The needy white men (employers) placed an order for
their required number of people at SWANLA at a fee that went to the colonial administrations
coffers and this practice was seen as a sale. As one labourer indicated:

It was in Grootfontein where we got bought. What else do you reason was contract work all about? The
white people use to send money to their friends to look and find some people for them. So, money was given
to those in offices and when we arrived there we were told, o.k. this one needs this number of people. The
money with which we were purchased went to the administration. That is how it was.14

Since labourers already knew what job category they have been assigned to in Rundu, their
objection at Grootfontein was not against the type of employment but rather against the area of
employment or a particular employer.15 After a labourer was given an employer or destination
of work he was provided with a blanket, a long-sleeved shirt and a short-sleeved one (regardless
of the size of the labourers), some bread and two cans of jam. The quantity of the goods labour-
ers received depended on the length of the journey. As one interviewee said: The number of
loafs of bread you were given depended on the distance of travel and if you were, for instance,
going to Walvis Bay you got three loafs of bread with two tins of jam.16

Each labourer was provided with a train ticket attached to a permit of employment form,
which indicated their names, the name of the area where they went to work and that of the em-
ployer. Contract labourers travelled by coal trains, the kataghura (the cutter/breaker), to their
various work destinations but dreaded them because these were usually used for cattle transport
and thus labourers felt degraded in their humanity.17 The taking away of the personal documents
of contract labourers, which they received back from employers only after the contract period
had expired, ensured that labourers could not travel elsewhere without the permit of the master
and could not change work (unless he broke the contract and left without his papers).18

Farm Living and Working Conditions

Contract labourers on farms faced poor sleeping arrangements that resulted in inadequate
sleep.19 Labourers usually slept in small rounded houses called pondoks that were usually
situated in the backyard of the main house of the farm. The number of labourers per pondok de-
pended on the availability of pondoks and it could range from one to five labourers per pondok.

13 See interview with Ndumba Shirengumuke, Hoha, 2009.
14 Ndumba Shirengumuke, Rucara village, 3 July 2009.
15 See interview with Linyando Bernhard Lipayi, (born 1936), Ndiyona village, 27 July 2009.
16 See interview with Bernhard Limbangu Shampapi, Rucara, 2009.
17 See V. H. Ndadi, Breaking contract: the story of Helao Vinnia Ndadi (Windhoek, AACRLS, 2009), p. 18.
18 See interview with Bernhard Lipayi Linyando, Ndiyona, 27 July 2009.
19 See interview with Tuhemwe Shevekwa, Sharughanda, 2009.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 5

Some pondoks were old with leaking roofs and cracked walls and were usually not fumigated
and became the breeding ground for ntjanya (bugs) which tormented the labourers during their
sleep, a situation which got worse when it rained.20 The labourers could also be assigned any
available structure such as a storage room for accommodation. This was the case for Shindimba
Shihungu during his first contract to Outjo farms in the 1950s.21

When a new labourer arrived on a farm, they familiarised themselves with their new places
and determined how they would fit in by inquiring from other labourers about life on a farm.
Since Kavango labourers usually worked with labourers from other ethnic groups they estab-
lished friendships across ethnic lines and usually learned Otjiherero, the Damara language and
Oshikwanyama as a lingua franca. The Kavango labourers could easily learn these other Bantu
languages as they could relate them to many similar words in their own language. As Shindim-
ba Shihungu indicated:

A Damara came to me and said let us go and look for the cattle. I said o.k. let us go. He spoke in Otji-
herero. I understood the word let us go and the word look for the cattle sounded like in our language. So
then we left to look for the cattle.22

At the farm the farmer had the final say and allocated any work to the labourers, sometimes in
contrast to the contract agreement. This meant that a labourer who was contracted to work in the
kitchen could end up working as a herd boy. Since some labourers had preconceived ideas about
what they would do on the farm, their new condition of labour was therefore a shock. Matamu,
who left for his first contract after 1936 and worked at a farm in Okahandja thought, for in-
stance, that he would do light work because he was a minor.23 Contract labourers preconceived
ideas about the nature of work turned out to be different from what they experienced at home.
At home, for instance, a young man learned by practical examples from the elders while on the
farms he was instructed and at times compelled to work. At home, the men visited neighbours
with no limits of what time to return home or else sat around shinyanga (the social gather-
ing place around the fire in the evening) to discuss their experiences of the day and plans for
the next day. However, on farms visiting days were only on Sundays and workers only visited
friends at the various camp sites situated within the same farm. Unlike at home where cook-
ing was the womens responsibility, contract labourers on farms had to cook for themselves.
Labourers on farms also had to work in the kitchen to help the mistress cook for their master.

The space of the kitchen on the farm, unlike at home, became central to labourers and
those who worked there felt closer to farm authority in the sense that they developed a closer
relationship with the mistress (this was the farmers wife who was also referred to as the Mis-
sis). Although working in the kitchen was highly regarded among labourers, it at times con-

20 Ibid.
21 See interview with Shindimba Shihungu, Ndiyona, 2009.
22 Ibid.
23 See interview with Matamu, (born +-1919), Rundu town, 12 July 2009.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 6

tained problems as labourers felt the authority more directly. Labourers point out that although
some farmers were likely not to bring trouble on them, it was mostly their wives who incited
them to do so. The Missis usually reported every mistake of the labourer to her husband and
expected him to deal with the respective labourer. The short temper of the Missis lingers on in
the memory of some contract labourers. The prominence of this memory of the Missis reflects
on the gender roles in the Kavango region in which women were expected to be submissive to
their men and listen to their commands. Therefore Kavango farm labourers might have found it
more difficult and traumatic to be shouted at by a woman. The constant reporting of a labourer
by the Missis left him open to acts of victimisation from his master. The central issue that usu-
ally made the Missis in the kitchen angry was when a labourer broke a cup or a plate or spilt
anything on the floor and her anger was aggravated when the labourer dared to speak back. In
their narrations of experiences in the kitchen, some interviewees are careful to represent them-
selves differently in contrast to other labourers who got into trouble. Shirengumuke is a case
example:

When I finally entered the kitchen I was never beaten. Even when she got angry she would come and just
stand. At times when one was holding something and then it slipped from your hands and broke down, hey!
She would come with force and say you broke my cup I am going to beat you. And then I would respond
just beat me, have I not told you before that I did not come on contract to work in a kitchen? I came for
milking cows but then you said, no, just hang up with milking and come in here until such a time that we
find someone for the kitchen, I was not the one who chose this. After that then she would stand and stand
until she gives up and goes away. When she was standing in anger, I would be silent, busy doing my work;
she would also just stand there until she turns and goes away. This was unlike the case with my friend who
spoke back when she spoke that was why they could not understand each other.24

His strategy was to be quiet while his friend spoke back and angered the Missis further. Some
labourers, therefore, developed a survival strategy by being silent whenever abusive words
were showered upon them. These were acts of agency. Being silent though could also be related
to the earlier traditional education that children received from their parents to never respond
negatively to an elder or anyone senior.25

Labourers had to cover the costs of supplies for their utensils such as a plate, a
pot and a cup themselves. The costs for these items, which they received from their master,
were later deducted from their wages. At the end of each week the master also provided supplies
of food. They usually received tobacco, salt, sugar and maize meal, beans and soup while meat
was only given occasionally.

Although there were exceptions farm employers were generally regarded by labourers to
be cruel. The oral narratives indicate examples of physical abuse of contract labourers who got
beaten for failing to greet the baas as he passed by and were kicked in the buttocks by the
mistress as they pushed the car of their master to start the engine. They were also beaten for

24 Shirengumuke, Hoha, 2009.
25 See interview with Kamenye Likuwa, Kangweru village, 2009.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 7

beating a calf during the milking process, for the death of livestock and the negligence of work
by a fellow labourer, for not being able to operate water pump machines and for speaking out as
the farmer speaks. In some cases the farmer called the police to come and beat up his contract
labourers for what he believed was a cheeky and disrespectful attitude of contract labourers
towards him.26 The worst that could happen to a farm contract labourer was to be killed and
contract labourers believed that those labourers who disappeared under mysterious circum-
stances without a trace were in fact killed by the farmer.27 The farmer could get away with the
crime by reporting to the police that his labourers had absconded from work. It was useless for
labourers to lay complaints against the farmers mistreatment as labourers were always sure to
be found guilty and served with harsh punishments afterwards. The continued mistreatment of
farm labourers with no legal recourse to their problems usually made some labourers wish they
had never come on contract work and it led to their desertions from farms. This was, however,
a dangerous decision as a labourer was legally breaking contract and could be imprisoned. The
estimated number of desertions from farms within the Police Zone over a period of twelve
months ending in 1947 was over 600 and at the end of this period 297 arrests had been made
within the Police Zone and 21 beyond, but 282 of those who had escaped remained free.28 La-
bourers who were caught while escaping were beaten up by the police before being returned to
their former masters but in cases where the old master was no longer interested in such labour-
ers, they were usually deported back to the Kavango so as to be eligible for re-contracting.29

There were exceptional cases where farmers displayed kindness to some labourers but this
selective favouritism usually created tension, suspicion and conflicts among labourers. The
tension and conflict was usually between the long-serving labourers and the newcomers. What
created discontent at times was when a newcomer was placed in charge over the long-serving
labourers or was favoured above them in other aspects. Such discontent led to suspicions on the
new labourer which put him in a vulnerable position, sometimes to a point where he felt his life
threatened and where the only solution was to leave the farm. This was Tuhemwes experience
in 1970:

At that farm where I worked, I was the only person from Kavango and the only minor; all of them were
from Ovamboland. Then the white madam liked me greatly so that whenever she went shopping, I was
always taken along in her car. I use to be paid R6.00 a month while others got R.4.00 or R.5.00 and this is
what made them to question why I the new comer was getting R6.00 than them who have been there longer.
Since then tension began to build up between me and my friends. They were complaining that why was it
so that despite the fact that they were the first one to work on the farm, the white madam did not take one of
them to do the work that I was doing? And why is it that every time she went shopping she would only pick
me to go with her? So, that was the way it continued to be and every time she went out she took me along

26 See interview with Tuhemwe Shevekwa, Sharughanda, 2009.
27 Ibid.
28 Silvester, Black Pastoralists, White Farmers, p. 350.
29 See D.K. Ausiku, My own stories: is this Gods work or Satans scheme? (Unpublished manuscript, Canada,

copy right no. ISBN 0-1038934, 10 November 2005), p. 34.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 8

until later I also began to notice that my friends were really not happy. It was then that a thought began to
develop in my mind that perhaps one day my friends would be tempted to do something bad to me, I really
began to panic, I got scared. Finally my days for end of contract were nearing and the twelve months were
soon over. But then the master asked me not to go back but to add additional months but I refused. But I did
not tell them the truth about why I feared staying.30

It was an invitation of problems for a labourer to be loved and favoured above others as this
usually led to suspicion and envy from fellow labourers and put his life at risk. The suspicion
by other labourers towards a favoured labourer indicates their demand for equal treatment from
the farmer.

Tuhemwes account that contract labourers in Namibia got paid different salaries at differ-
ent times could be true considering that the recommended wages, given inflation, varied over
time and within the various employment sectors. After the Second World War in 1945, the
farm labour commission, for instance, recommended farm work wages as follows: the first four
months at 8/-per month, the second four months at 9/-per month, the third four months at 10/-
per month, the fourth four months at 12/-per month, the fifth four months at 13/-per month and
the last four months at 14/-per month.31 By 1966, it was stated through an official publication
that a contract worker with no previous experience working on commercial farms in central
and southern Namibia started at R7.50 per month, raised to R8.25 per month after 12 months,
to R9.00 six months thereafter, and to R9.75 another six month later.32 What matters more
about the oral statements is not their factual truth or falseness but what meanings they provide
about wages. Labourers narratives indicate that wages were not fixed and while some got paid
monthly, others got their wages only at the end of their contract. Others complained of not hav-
ing been given their full pay and dismissed unfairly afterwards as was the case for Kativitji in
1929.33 Others got as low as R.0.90c per month for the first eight months and then got R1.00
per month for the remaining two months as was the case for Ndumba Shirengumuke in the mid-
1930s during his first contract at a farm in Gobabis. Others got R6.00 per month as was the case
for Tuhemwe in 1970 at a farm in Grootfontein.

The general feeling of contract labourers was that the wages were low and many com-
plained that the whites were tricking them out from their supposed wages.34 In some cases,
farm labourers worked for the whole contract period and received their pay only at the expira-
tion of the contract usually after the farmer had deducted everything the labourers owed him.

30 Tuhemwe, Sharuwanda, 2009.
31 Circular minute from the office of the Administrator titled Farm labour commission (Windhoek, NAN,

SWAA 2412, A521/13/3, 30 August 1939).
32 G.M. Bauer, The labor movement and the prospect of democracy in Namibia (PhD thesis, Wisconsin Madi-

son, 1994), p. 49.
33 See, The Administrator, Returning labourers-complaints, Kativitji, pass No. 370/28 (SWAA 2397, file

A521/2, 5 May 1928).
34 See for example the interview with Shikiri wa Nkayira, 2009.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 9

Tuhemwe Shevekwa explains his 1970 experience:

What the mistress use to do is that whenever a labourer needed something from a shop she bought it for you
and then at the end of contract work, all your credit were deducted and you were paid the remaining salary.
I worked for twelve months without pay and it was only at the end of my contract that I was given twelve
rand. May be it was different from my other friends on other farms, I will not know, but I tell you what I
experienced. I saw my pay only at the end of my contract period.35

With the little wages therefore, labourers could only afford to purchase goods in the police zone
and usually arrived in the Kavango without a cent left. They felt that they were only making all
the money for the whites and did not receive a fair share. Many contract labourers stayed longer
on contract because it became difficult to save money or to spend more on their families be-
cause of the insufficient pay. But since labourers had no other choices, they continued to work
on the farms and made the best use of the little wages. Shikiri waNkayira articulates his 1930s
experiences explicitly:

You think we saw any kindness of high wages there? No! The kindness in high wages to which we are now
impressed is that of today whereby people are now getting so much money, it was not the case in our times,
no kidding! But nonetheless we never threw away the money, we use to be thankful and say let it just be
this bad but we are still going back.36

In general, therefore, many contract labourers were always short of money and although many
extended their contracts in the hope to accumulate more, this remained only an everlasting hope
as the continuous low pay made it difficult.

The practice by farmers of giving new European names to labourers for easy identification
purposes was not limited to Namibia but extended to neighbouring countries such as South Af-
rica and Mozambique. Harries, for example, has given some background to this practice in the
mines and argued that names that carried a specific meaning at home and provided their bear-
ers with a temporal and spatial identity were met with incomprehension on the South African
and Mozambique mines.37 Harries further indicate that although one can ascribe the absurdity
of these names to the practices of racist whites seeking to infantilize blacks and legitimate their
exploitation, workers created a new situational social identity as mark of their passage through
life that signified membership of a new and assertive community.38 Tuhemwe Shevekwa de-
scribed his new name calling experience of 1970:

The white person use to call me Timo. To call me Tuhemwe was difficult for her. But at that time I was
not yet baptized. They called me Timo as they could not manage to pronounce Tuhemwe. Since then they

35 Tuhemwe Shevekwa, 2009.
36 Shikiri waNkayira, 2009.
37 P. Harries, Work culture and identity: migrant labourers in Mozambique and South Africa, c.1860-1910 (Jo-

hannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 1994), p. 60.
38 Ibid., p. 59.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 10

called me Timo to imply Tuhemwe (Tuhemwe laughs). I also use to respond to it because I got too tired of
correcting them and so I said to myself I will just respond to the name.39

Harries interpretation where the contract labourers derived pride and constructed a new way
of looking at the world through their given European names does not apply to the case of the
Kavango. Here, they thought of it as an inability of their employers to pronounce their African
names. Contract labourers were unhappy as the European names were imposed on them and
although they continued to use them it was against their will and was simply a means to relate
more easily to their employers and as a pass around the police zone. The contract labourers also
gave new names to the farmers but unlike the farmers who informed the labourers of their new
names the labourers dared not do the same. These names were usually laden with negative con-
notations and could make their masters furious and only lead to severe punishment all of which
speaks to the politics of power relations between the labourers and employers at that time. Farm
labourers usually gave farmers African names to describe physical features such as kapunda
(stomach) for one who had a huge stomach or katwekatoka (white head) for one who had grey
hair. The names also described the behavior of the employers such as Shimbungu (hyena),
which was given to Harold Eedes because contract labourers believed he was cruel. The prac-
tice of name-calling among the Kavango people was that a name given to a person could be
related to either an event during birth or the physical appearance of the person. African names
that were given to employers, therefore, were related to the characteristics or physical appear-
ance of the employer and were always meaningful. Most of these names were also loaded with
humour and, therefore, name-calling could be viewed as a therapy that helped the labourers
come to terms with the mistreatment they endured from the employers.

The duration of contract farm labour changed over time but it was never less than six
months. Based on the recommendations of the farm labour commission in the 1940s, the dura-
tion was extended to two years at one stretch.40 Despite these changes some labourers stayed
longer than usual and in some cases married and settled permanently in the police zone. Such
labourers became known as mbwiti, which is a person who stays away for long and does not
like to return home regardless of whether he/she has the intention of returning home one day. It
was, however, the policy of the colonial administration that the contract labour system should
not lead to detribalisation and as such the influx population laws ensured that contract labourers
returned after the contract labour period expired. Proclamation No. 29 of 1935 dealt with the
control of the Extra Territorial and Northern Natives, which included the Angolan, Zambian,
Ovambo and Kavango contract labourers.41 Under this proclamation all contract labourers had

39 Tuhemwe Shevekwa, sharughanda, 30 July 2009.
40 D.D. Forsyth, Recommendations of farm labour commission (Windhoek, NAN, NAT 1/1/54, S/U14, file 13,

26 February 1940).
41 Circular on Control of Extra-Territorial and Northern Natives (Windhoek, NAN, NAT 1/1/54, S/U-20, file

25, 8 January 1936).

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 11

to be repatriated at the expiration of the of contract and the police on patrols ensured that all
contract labourers produced their non-expired employment permits or passes.42

The end of contract was usually referred to as kukutuka (to be set free from) and it was
indeed regarded by labourers as the temporary end of their bondage to contract work at least
until their next contract. When the contracts had expired, labourers were given back their pass
permit to return to the Kavango and were eligible to reapply for another labour contract. In
cases where the former employer still needed the service of a labourer he had to go to the office
of the commissioner or magistrate for a re-contracting for a labourer and had to pay the recruit-
ing fee but this only materialised if the labourer was interested and agreed to be re-contracted to
the same employer. Many contract labourers returned to contract work more than once although
possibly to different employers or employment and some like Ludwig Kudumo Kamenye were
engaged in contract labour for a consecutive eight years.43 The question of adding more months
to a contract after the expiry of a previous contract was possible but Silvester shows, however,
that migrant farm workers seldom renewed their contract on a farm or returned to the same
farm twice.44 The oral narratives indicate that although re-contract to a cruel employer after the
expiration of the contract was highly unlikely, it was not wise for a labourer to divulge the truth
to his master of his unwillingness to return as this only put him into more trouble. Instead the
labourer gave false reasons or simply falsely promised their employers that they would return
after a break.45

Farm labourers believed that the contract labour system was an example of colonial exploi-
tation at its worst because they suffered extreme mistreatment as non-persons from employers.46
Kapinga Muhero, who went on his first contract in Namibia in the 1960s, asserts that although
contract labour system was the only means to acquire money, one received nothing good out
of it and he compares engaging in contract labour system to a local parable of gathering wild
fruits. He explains:

I see contract work like the issue of collecting wild fruit. When your fellows are gone to look for wild fruit
in the jungle then you too begin to question why you must stay. You then decide that you also have to go
there regardless of whether you will die there or survive. Those things [contract labour] was all about sacri-
ficing and suffering and making up ones mind and being aware that whether one dies there or returns alive
was up to God to know. There were no benefits there.47

The wild fruit collection parable among the Kavango ethnic groups is usually interpreted as
follows: people may take a long journey under great hardships to the dangerous jungle and col-

42 Ibid.
43 See interview with Ludwig Kudumo Kamenye, Kangweru, 13 August 2009.
44 Silvester,Black pastoralists, White Farmers, p. 345.
45 See for example the extensive interview with NdumbaShirengumuke, Rucara, 3 July 2009.
46 See interview with Tuhemwe Shevekwa, Sharughanda, 30 July 2009.
47 Kapinga Muhero, Kamutjonga village, 19 August 2009.

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 12

lect the wild fruits but once such wild fruits are collected they only last for a day and still leave
families in the same hardship as before and yet one has to make repeated journeys to the jungle
for more needed but yet non-lasting wild fruits. Herein is again the image of entrapment for
labourers contracted to work on farms.

Conclusion

The paradigm of exploitation, suppression and entrapment under the contract labour system
remain dominant in the narratives of former farm labourers. Although there were benefits, these
were small and non-lasting and not worth the exploitations and the sufferings they had to en-
dure. Many farm labourers viewed their mistreatment under the contract labour system as co-
lonial exploitation at its worst as the wages were too low and although many of them extended
their contracts in the hope to accumulate more to improve their social and economic conditions,
this remained an everlasting hope and a permanent failure.

Lessons and the Way forward for Postcolonial Namibia

Control and oppression and exploitation (poor sleeping arrangements, low or no wages, unfair
dismissals, no legal recourse to labourers problems) are common features of farm work experi-
ence. Labourers are exposed to personal hardship and danger during the journey to and from
farm work destination.

The treatment received by farm labourers is degrading to their humanity. Despite all suf-
ferings, labourers are careful to represent themselves differently in contrast to other labourers
who get into trouble and being silent has become a survival strategy on the farms. There are but
small rewards in farm work but these rewards are non-lasting. Long stay at farm work impact
negatively on marriages and leads to alienation of families and to ones area of origin. Farm
labourers view engaging in farm work as a defeating activity that traps them in a cycle of hard-
ship and poverty as their dreams, hopes and aspirations of accumulating wealth to address their
social and economic hardship remains an everlasting hope and a permanent failure.

As a way forward, there is a need to strengthen labour policies and the monitoring of im-
plementation of such policies so that farm labourers are protected from exploitation and sup-
pression inherent in farm work. There is a need to constantly monitor the situation of farm
workers. Since many farm labourerss dependents live far away from their workplace, there is a
need to help farm labourers maintain contact with their families for family support purposes so
that negative family impacts on women and children are mitigated. There is a need to address
the root causes for physical and psychological abuses of farm workers and improve worker/
employer relations. There is a need for Unions and stakeholders to increase efforts to listen to
the voices of farm labourers who should be encouraged to speak without any fears of repris-
als from employers. There is a need to improve wages and remuneration for farm workers so

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 13

that many would feel that their engagement into farm work is not a defeating activity but that
it helps to address their aspiration of accumulating wealth and addressing their familys social
and economic hardships.

Kletus Likuwa, University of Namibia
likuwakm@gmail.com

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 14

References

Oral interviews in the Kavango conducted by Kletus Likuwa

Shihungu, Shindimba., Ndiyona, 2009.
Shevekwa. Tuhemwe., Sharughanda, 2009.
Shampapi Bernhard Limbangu., Rucara, 2009.
Likuwa, Kamemye., Kangweru village, 2009.
Shirengumuke, Ndumba., Hoha, 3 July 2009.
Matamu, Rundu town, 12 July 2009.
Linyando, Bernhard, Lipayi., Ndiyona, 27 July 2009.
WaNkayira, Shikiri., Ndongalinena, 8 August 2009.
Kamenye, Ludwig Kudumo., Kangweru, 13 August 2009.
Muhero, Kapinga., Kamutjonga village, 19 August 2009.

National Archives of Namibia (NAN), Windhoek

Administrator, Returning labourers-complaints, Kativitji, pass No. 370/28 (SWAA 2397, file
A521/2, 5 May 1928).

Circular minute from the office of the Administrator entitled Farm labour commission (Wind-
hoek, NAN, SWAA 2412, A521/13/3, 30 August 1939).

Circular on Control of Extra-Territorial and Northern Natives (Windhoek, NAN, NAT 1/1/54,
S/U-20, file 25, 8 January 1936).

Forsyth, D.D., Recommendations of farm labour commission (Windhoek, NAN, NAT 1/1/54,
S/U14, file 13, 26 February 1940).

Native Commissioner to District surgeon of Runtu, Classification of recruits, SWANLA and
WENELA (NAR 1/1/55, 13/1/1, 28 March 1947).

SWANLA Manager of Grootfontein to the Chief Native Commissioner in Windhoek Medical
examinations of recruits at Runtu (SWAA 2426, A521/10, 8 April 1953).

Unpublished manuscript

Ausiku, D.K., My own life stories: is this Gods work or Satans scheme? (Unpublished man-
uscript, Canada, copy right no. ISBN 0-1038934, 10 November 2005).

Books and unpublished theses

Bauer, G.M., The labor movement and the prospect of democracy in Namibia (PhD thesis,
Wisconsin Madison, 1994).

BAB Working Paper 2014:02 15

Eckl. A., Konfrontation und kooperation am Kavango (Nord Namibia) von 1891 bis 1921
(PhD thesis, University of Cologne, 2004).

Harries, P., Work culture and identity: migrant labourers in Mozambique and South Africa,
c.1860-1910 (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 1994).

Kane-Berman, J., Contract labour in South West Africa (Johannesburg, South African Institute
of Race Relations, 1972).

Ndadi, V. H., Breaking contract: the story of Helao Vinnia Ndadi (Windhoek, AACRLS, 2009).
Oliviers, M.J., Inboorlingheid en administrasie in die mandaat gebied van Suid Wes-Afrika

(PhD thesis, University of Stellenbosch, 1961).
Silvester, J., Black Pastoralists, White Farmers: the dynamics of land dispossession and labour

recruitment in southern Namibia (PhD thesis, University of London, 1993).